# 03 Hazard Profile and Risk Register Method

> Fire Service Safety Management System, version 0.3.3 (2026-10-25). The Human Factor. Document FSSMS-ASM-03.
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> Canonical: https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/hazard-profile-and-risk-register-method
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## 1. Purpose

This note gives the department one method for finding its hazards, ranking the risk they carry, choosing controls in the right order, and keeping the result alive. The output is the **hazard profile and risk register**: one table, owned entry by entry by the Program Improvement Teams, that every program module, safe work procedure, inspection checklist and training plan in the package traces back to. The method follows CSA Z1002:12 adapted to the way a fire service actually works: routine work in stations and shops, non-routine work at incidents, and work in emergency conditions where the hazard arrives before the assessment can.

The register is also how the department satisfies the risk management plan that NFPA 1550 requires [(NFPA 1550, 2024, ch. 6)](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/hazard-profile-and-risk-register-method#ref-nfpa-1550) and the hazard identification system that the applicable occupational health and safety statute requires of a written program ([J03 OHS Policy and Program](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/j03-ohs-policy-and-program); [J04 Hazard Assessment and Workplace Inspections](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/j04-hazard-assessment-and-workplace-inspections)). Section 3 shows the mapping.

> **Information: Delivery note**
>
> Build the register from the seed inventory in section 12, switched to the department’s Profile Worksheet, before the first Program Improvement Team meets. Do not build it in a room with only the safety division present. The ten highest-risk tasks get a learning-team session each before their entries are finalized; a register written from the standards alone describes work as imagined and the crews will know it.

## 2. What the register must do

1.  List every hazard the department’s members can meet in the work the department has declared it does (the Required and Conditional modules in [01 Program Profile Worksheet](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/program-profile-worksheet)).
2.  Rank each hazard by likelihood and severity on scales anchored in fire service events, so that two officers scoring the same hazard land in the same band.
3.  Record the controls in place in hierarchy order, the residual risk after them, and whether that residual is accepted and by whom.
4.  Name one owning Program Improvement Team and one accountable program manager for each entry.
5.  Link each entry to the program, the safe work procedures, the training and the inspection items that deliver its controls.
6.  Say when the entry is next reviewed and what event forces an earlier review.
7.  Feed the Gap Assessment, the indicator set, the audit sampling plan and the annual management review.

## 3. The standards and legal basis

| Requirement | Source | How the register meets it |
|:---|:---|:---|
| A written risk management plan covering administration, facilities, training, vehicle operations, protective clothing and equipment, operations at emergency incidents, non-emergency activities, products of combustion and other incident-related health hazards, with risk identification, evaluation, priorities, control techniques and monitoring | [NFPA 1550 (2024)](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/hazard-profile-and-risk-register-method#ref-nfpa-1550) ch. 6 (6.3.2), Annex J | The register’s program-area column covers every listed area; the L and S scores are the evaluation; the band is the priority; the controls column is the technique; the review column and the indicators are the monitoring. The risk management plan in the OHS program is a two-page cover note that points to the register |
| Hazard identification covering routine and non-routine activities, emergency situations, human factors, past incidents and the hierarchy of controls | ISO 45001:2018 cl. 6.1.2, 8.1.2; CSA Z45001:19 | Sections 4, 5, 7 and 10 |
| Hazard identification, elimination where practicable, assessment and control of residual risk, with worker participation, monitoring and review, assessment of hazards in emergency circumstances, and records | CSA Z1002:12 (R2022) | The method is Z1002’s sequence; section 10 carries the participation rule; sections 8 and 9 carry monitoring and review |
| A hazard identification system in the written OHS program: evaluation of the workplace, regular inspections, reporting and control of hazards, investigation, reporting to the committee; consultation with the committee on written procedures | The applicable OHS statute and regulations ([J03 OHS Policy and Program](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/j03-ohs-policy-and-program); [J04 Hazard Assessment and Workplace Inspections](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/j04-hazard-assessment-and-workplace-inspections); [J06 Written Procedures and Committee Consultation](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/j06-written-procedures-and-committee-consultation)) | The register is the evaluation; [Workplace Inspections](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/workplace-inspections-program) carries the inspection schedule; the hazard report in section 4 is the reporting route; the JOHSC consultant on every team and the consultation record in section 11 carry consultation |
| Critical task analysis to determine first-due and effective response force capability | CFAI CC 2C.4 [(CPSE, 2019)](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/hazard-profile-and-risk-register-method#ref-cpse-2019) | The emergency operations entries carry a staffing column (section 11) so that staffing is treated as a control |
| Psychosocial hazards identified and assessed | CSA Z1003-13 (R2022); ISO 45003:2021 | Program area PS in the seed inventory |

## 4. Where hazards come from

A register fed from one source goes stale. The method requires all of these, on the cycle shown.

| Source | What it yields | How it enters the register | Cycle |
|:---|:---|:---|:---|
| Task inventory (section 5) | The hazards of the work the department declares it does | Program team review of its task families | Annual, with the program appraisal |
| Incident, injury and near-miss reports | What actually went wrong or nearly did | Every investigation and near-miss review ends by checking whether the register entry exists and whether its score and controls still hold ([Incident Investigation and Learning](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/incident-investigation-and-learning-program)) | Continuous; monthly JOHSC trend review |
| Exposure reports | Contaminant, infectious and traumatic exposures by task | Exposure program team review of rates per working fire | Quarterly |
| Workplace inspections | Station, shop, apparatus and training-ground conditions | Inspection deficiencies rated P1 (Imminent) or P2 (Serious) on the package’s one priority scale create or update an entry | Monthly |
| Learning teams | How the work is really done: adaptations, workarounds, thin margins | The learning-team write-up is attached to the entry and its findings change the controls column ([06 Program Improvement Teams](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/program-improvement-teams) section 5) | Before any new or revised procedure; after any high-potential near miss |
| Standards and their revisions | New hazard knowledge (for example ventilation-limited fire behaviour, lithium battery off-gassing) | Standards map review ([02 Standards and Law Master Map](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/standards-and-law-master-map)) | Annual, and on publication of a new edition |
| Regulator orders, inspection reports and bulletins | What the regulator has found here or elsewhere | Logged by the HSO; entry created or re-scored within 30 days | On receipt |
| Community risk assessment and standards of cover | The buildings, occupancies, transport, industry and terrain the department faces; target hazards; lightweight construction register; energy storage sites | Program team review against planning zones | Annual, with the CRA update |
| Member hazard reports and stop-work calls | Hazards seen by the people closest to them | 72-hour acknowledgement; entry created or updated; reporter told | Continuous |
| External learning | NIOSH fatality reports, provincial guidance notes, UL FSRI research, coroner and inquiry findings | Quarterly review by the HSO with the relevant program team | Quarterly |
| Management of change | New apparatus, equipment, substances, stations, services, procedures | No change goes live without a register check (Gap Assessment element 1.11) | On change |

**The hazard report.** One form or app, one minute to complete: what, where, when, what could happen, what the member did about it, name optional. It goes to the company officer and the HSO at once. The HSO acknowledges within 72 hours and the reporter is told the outcome. The same route takes good catches. Rising report counts are reported as success ([04 Baseline Metrics and Indicator Set](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/baseline-metrics-and-indicator-set)).

## 5. The task inventory by program area

Hazards attach to tasks, not to job titles. Each Program Improvement Team keeps the task inventory for its program area: the task families, the specific tasks under each, who does them (career, volunteer, both), how often, and under what conditions. The seed inventory in section 12 uses these program areas; the Profile Worksheet switches areas off where the department does not do the work.

| Code | Program area | Task families (examples) | Owning team (default) |
|:---|:---|:---|:---|
| SF | Structural fire | Size-up and 360; interior attack; search; ventilation (horizontal, vertical, positive pressure); forcible entry; exposure protection; defensive operations; water supply | Fire Suppression and Emergency Operations |
| OV | Overhaul and salvage | Opening walls and ceilings; debris removal; hidden fire checks; salvage; fire investigation support | Fire Suppression and Emergency Operations |
| WL | Wildland and interface | Initial attack; line construction; structure protection; mop-up; chainsaw; pump and hose lays; UTV and tender movement; aviation support | Wildland and Interface |
| HM | Hazardous materials, CBRN and energy hazards | Recognition and isolation; air monitoring; entry; decontamination; EV, battery, ESS and PV incidents; gas and propane; clandestine labs; opioid scenes | Hazardous Materials |
| HT | Working at heights | Ground ladders; aerial operations; roof work; apparatus tops; training towers | Technical Rescue |
| CS | Confined space | Pre-entry assessment; atmospheric monitoring; entry and rescue; retrieval; designated rescue service drills | Technical Rescue |
| TC | Trench and structural collapse | Trench stabilization and rescue; collapse shoring and void search; secondary collapse management | Technical Rescue |
| RR | Rope rescue | Anchoring; belay; lowering and raising; edge management; patient packaging; helicopter interface | Technical Rescue |
| WI | Water, ice and swiftwater | Shore-based; boat-based; ice rescue; swiftwater entry; dive (where provided); flood response | Water and Ice Rescue |
| MR | Medical response | Patient assessment and care; lifting and moving; airway and aerosol-generating procedures; opioid scenes; violent patients; roadway scenes | Medical First Response |
| AD | Apparatus and driving | Emergency response driving; backing; tanker operation; riding positions; vehicle checks; personal vehicle response | Apparatus, Driving and Roadway |
| RW | Roadway operations | Scene blocking; traffic control; working on the traffic side; night operations; utility hazards at collisions | Apparatus, Driving and Roadway |
| TR | Training | Live fire; practical evolutions; physical training; driver training; rope and tower work; SCBA mazes | Training Safety |
| SS | Station and shop | Apparatus bay work; maintenance and repair; SCBA filling; laundering; kitchen and living areas; housekeeping; snow and ice | Facilities and Stations |
| PS | Psychological | Exposure to potentially traumatic events; cumulative exposure; organizational stressors; isolation; bereavement and line-of-duty death | Psychological Health and Peer Support |
| VI | Violence and harassment | Scene violence; weapons; lone work; harassment and bullying in stations; domestic and encampment scenes | Medical First Response (scene) and the fire chief’s office (workplace) |
| HC | Heat, cold and weather | Work in structural PPE in heat; prolonged winter incidents; lightning; wind; rehab | Health, Wellness and Rehab |
| NO | Noise | Sirens and horns; pumps, saws and generators; aircraft; impulse noise | Health, Wellness and Rehab |
| ID | Infectious disease | Bloodborne; airborne and droplet; contact; station transmission; immunization | Medical First Response |
| FA | Fatigue | Long shifts; volunteer response after work; campaign deployments; night alerting; sleep disorders | Health, Wellness and Rehab |
| ER | Ergonomics and manual handling | Hose and equipment loading; patient lifting; stairs with equipment; awkward postures; slips and trips | Facilities and Stations with Medical First Response |
| RP | RPAS | Flight operations; airspace; battery handling; night operations; data | RPAS |
| MA | Marine firefighting | Vessel operation; firefighting from a vessel; shipboard entry; crew overboard; night operation | Marine |
| AP | Airport rescue and firefighting | Aircraft fire; agent application; airside driving; composite and fuel hazards; cargo | Airport |

## 6. The risk assessment matrix

### 6.1 Likelihood

Score the likelihood of the **harm** (the event in the “typical harm” column), not the hazard being present. Use the department’s own records first, then Canadian and NIOSH evidence, then judgement. Anchors are for a department of the baseline size; a small department adjusts the frequency words down one step and records that it did.

| Score | Word | Anchor |
|:---|:---|:---|
| 1 | Rare | Not expected in the department in a working lifetime; no record of this harm from this task in comparable Canadian departments |
| 2 | Unlikely | Could happen once in five to ten years in the department; has happened in comparable departments |
| 3 | Possible | Could happen about once a year to once in five years; has happened here or in a neighbouring department within memory |
| 4 | Likely | Happens several times a year here; or a near miss of this kind is reported most quarters |
| 5 | Almost certain | Happens at most working fires, most shifts or most training evolutions of this kind; or is continuous (for example chronic exposure) |

### 6.2 Severity

Score the **most credible worst outcome**, not the worst imaginable. Occupational disease and psychological injury are scored on the same scale as trauma.

| Score | Word | Anchor |
|:---|:---|:---|
| 1 | Negligible | First aid only; no lost time; no lasting effect |
| 2 | Minor | Medical aid; lost time under five days; full recovery; a single reported exposure with no follow-up needed |
| 3 | Moderate | Lost time over five days; reportable to the compensation board; recovery expected; a psychological injury needing clinical care with return to duty; an exposure needing medical follow-up |
| 4 | Major | A serious injury as the applicable statute defines it for reporting to the regulator ([J08 Incident Reporting and Investigation](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/j08-incident-reporting-and-investigation)); permanent impairment; occupational disease; a psychological injury with prolonged absence; credible potential for a single fatality |
| 5 | Catastrophic | A fatality; multiple serious injuries; members trapped or lost in an IDLH atmosphere; a mayday with entrapment |

### 6.3 The 5 by 5 matrix

Risk score = Likelihood × Severity.

| L  S | 1 Negligible | 2 Minor | 3 Moderate | 4 Major | 5 Catastrophic |
|:---|:---|:---|:---|:---|:---|
| **5 Almost certain** | 5 Moderate | 10 High | 15 High | 20 Extreme | 25 Extreme |
| **4 Likely** | 4 Low | 8 Moderate | 12 High | 16 High | 20 Extreme |
| **3 Possible** | 3 Low | 6 Moderate | 9 Moderate | 12 High | 15 High |
| **2 Unlikely** | 2 Low | 4 Low | 6 Moderate | 8 Moderate | 10 High |
| **1 Rare** | 1 Low | 2 Low | 3 Low | 4 Low | 5 Moderate |

### 6.4 Bands and the action each requires

| Band | Score | Action required | Sign-off | Review |
|:---|:---|:---|:---|:---|
| **Low** | 1 to 4 | Manage by routine procedure and training; no new controls required; record and move on; an improvement the team chooses to make is a P4 (Improvement) item | Team lead | Every three years, or on trigger |
| **Moderate** | 5 to 9 | A safe work procedure and training exist and are current; the entry has an owner; the control’s indicator is collected; a missing or lapsed control is a P3 (Moderate) item: plan within 30 days, closure within 90 | Program manager | Annually |
| **High** | 10 to 16 | Additional controls are required: the item enters the [Corrective Action Register](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/corrective-action-register) as P2 (Serious), with an interim control within 24 hours where practicable, the plan within 7 days and closure within 30 days (the deputy chief may extend once, to 90 days); the program manager signs the entry; the JOHSC is informed through its standing consultant; the item stays in the register until the controls are in place; the activity continues only with the current controls verified in place | Program manager, with the deputy chief informed | Every six months until Moderate; then annually |
| **Extreme** | 17 to 25 | The activity stops or is restricted (defensive only, awareness-level only, no entry) the same shift until controls bring the score below 17: the item enters the [Corrective Action Register](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/corrective-action-register) as P1 (Imminent), with the fire chief and the JOHSC co-chairs told within 24 hours, the plan within 2 working days and closure within 7 days (the fire chief may extend once, to 30 days, only with the restriction kept in place); the fire chief signs the entry and the restriction; the JOHSC is formally consulted; the item is a Stage 1 critical item; where the hazard is inherent in a declared service (structural collapse at a working fire, for example) the entry records why the service continues, the controls that make the residual acceptable, and the fire chief’s acceptance | Fire chief, JOHSC consulted | Quarterly until High; then every six months |

**One priority scale.** The band scores the risk; the corrective action an entry generates is rated on the package’s one priority scale ([Corrective Action Register](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/corrective-action-register)): Extreme P1, High P2, Moderate P3, Low P4, unless the scale’s meaning fits a higher rating (a regulator order is at least P2 whatever the band, and a stop-work order is P1). Where the permanent control needs capital work that cannot finish inside the closure clock, interim controls that bring the score down do not close the item: the permanent control keeps its priority, flagged Capital, with a dated plan tied to the budget cycle, approved by the fire chief and reviewed quarterly by the JOHSC, and the interim controls are re-verified monthly until it is installed ([Corrective Action Register](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/corrective-action-register) section 4). The item is reported at every management review until then.

A band can never be lowered by argument alone. Lowering a score needs a control that changes likelihood or severity, named in the controls column, verified in place, with a date.

## 7. The hierarchy of controls

Controls are recorded in this order, and the register shows which levels were considered and rejected and why. PPE and training alone are not accepted as the only controls for a High or Extreme entry unless the entry explains why nothing higher is reasonably practicable (ISO 45001:2018, cl. 8.1.2; CSA Z1002:12).

| Level | What it means in a fire service | Examples |
|:---|:---|:---|
| 1 Elimination | Do not do the task, or do not do it that way | No interior operations in a vacant building with no credible life hazard; no entry to a trench without protective systems; not providing a service the department is not trained and equipped for |
| 2 Substitution | Replace the hazard with a lesser one | Transitional attack from outside before entry where conditions indicate; mechanical ventilation instead of roof cutting where it achieves the objective; PFAS-free foams and gear as they become available; remote monitoring in place of entry |
| 3 Engineering | Separate people from the hazard by design | Diesel exhaust source capture; clean cab apparatus; apparatus blocking at roadway scenes; fall protection anchorages on towers; SCBA with integrated PASS and heads-up display; intrinsically safe instruments; apparatus telematics; thermal imaging |
| 4 Administrative | Change how the work is organized | Safe work procedures written from work-as-done; two-in/two-out and RIT; accountability and PAR; air management rules; rehab triggers; staffing and effective response force; training and currency; go and no-go cards; rotation and hour limits; pre-incident plans; management of change; inspection schedules |
| 5 PPE | Protect the person | Structural ensemble with particulate-blocking hood; SCBA through overhaul; chemical protective clothing by hazard class; PFDs and suits; high-visibility apparel; hearing protection; fall arrest harnesses |

**Staffing is a control.** Where the control is a crew (RIT, a rehab sector, a safety officer, a backup line), the entry records the minimum staffing and the effective response force attainment rate as its indicator, following the critical task logic of CFAI CC 2C.4 [(CPSE, 2019)](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/hazard-profile-and-risk-register-method#ref-cpse-2019).

## 8. Residual risk

After the controls in place are listed and verified, score the entry again. The second score is the residual risk. Rules:

- Residual Low or Moderate: accepted by the program manager; recorded.
- Residual High: accepted only by the deputy chief, with a dated plan to reduce it and the item in the Corrective Action Register on the priority scale (section 6.4).
- Residual Extreme: not accepted. The activity is restricted or stopped until the residual is High or better, unless the fire chief records a written acceptance for a declared service with the reasons, the controls and the review date, and the JOHSC has been consulted.
- Acceptance is never silent. Every High and Extreme residual carries a name (role), a date and a reason.

## 9. Review triggers

The register is reviewed on cycle (section 6.4) and immediately on any of these:

1.  A fatality, serious injury, mayday, RIT deployment, or a near miss with high potential in the department.
2.  A fatality or serious injury from the same task family in another Canadian department, or a NIOSH report with findings that apply.
3.  A regulator order, inspection finding or bulletin.
4.  A new edition of a standard the program relies on.
5.  A new service, apparatus, piece of equipment, substance, station or procedure (management of change).
6.  A change in the community risk assessment (new occupancies, industry, energy storage, lightweight construction, interface growth).
7.  A learning-team session that finds the work is done differently from the entry’s assumptions.
8.  An audit or gap assessment finding against the entry’s controls.
9.  A JOHSC recommendation touching the entry.
10. Three or more hazard reports on the same task in a quarter.

## 10. Safety Differently in the method

This method is built on the position that people are the source of the department’s safety, not its main hazard, and that a register which describes work as imagined will be ignored by the people who do the work ([Hollnagel, 2014](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/hazard-profile-and-risk-register-method#ref-hollnagel-2014); [Conklin, 2017](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/hazard-profile-and-risk-register-method#ref-conklin-2017); [Dekker, 2014](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/hazard-profile-and-risk-register-method#ref-dekker-2014)).

- **Work-as-done first.** Before an entry for a High or Extreme task is finalized, a learning-team session with the members who do the task records how it is really done: what makes it go well, what makes it hard, the workarounds, the conditions (staffing, time, weather, radio, command) that change it. The entry’s controls column is written from that, and the session write-up is attached. The ten highest-scoring entries get a session at Stage 1; every High and Extreme entry has one by Stage 2.
- **Capacity and margins.** Each High and Extreme entry records what makes the work go right most of the time (the crew’s skill, the second line, the officer’s read, the rehab cycle) and what erodes that capacity (short crews, long shifts, cold, equipment age). Protecting that capacity is a control and is recorded as one.
- **Just culture.** Adaptations and workarounds found by the method are information about the conditions, not evidence against the people. The learning firewall applies to learning-team material: it is never used for discipline, and conduct concerns go to a separate process run by different people.
- **Psychological safety.** A member who reports a hazard, calls a stop, or says “we do not do it that way” has done the method’s work. The officer’s expected reply is to acknowledge, act or explain, and thank; the HSO closes the loop with the reporter. The register’s own indicators include hazard reports per 100 members and the share of reporters who were told the outcome ([04 Baseline Metrics and Indicator Set](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/baseline-metrics-and-indicator-set)).
- **Learning link.** Every After-Action Review (Tier 1) asks whether the register entry for the task matched what happened; every Post-Incident Analysis (Tier 2) and Independent Learning Review (Tier 3) ends with a register check ([Incident Investigation and Learning Program](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/incident-investigation-and-learning-program); the full method is in Manual 02 - The Three Tiers and Event Triage).

## 11. The register template

One row per hazard. Fields in order; the register can be built in a spreadsheet, the records system or a database; the Fields list is the specification.

| Field | Type | Required | Who completes |
|:---|:---|:---|:---|
| ID | Code: program area + number (SF-01) | Yes | HSO |
| Program area | From section 5 | Yes | HSO |
| Task or activity | Text | Yes | Team lead |
| Hazard | Text: the thing that can cause harm | Yes | Team lead |
| Typical harm | Text: the most credible worst outcome | Yes | Team lead |
| Who is exposed | Career / volunteer / both; roles | Yes | Team lead |
| Conditions that raise the risk | Text (from work-as-done) | Yes for High and Extreme | Team lead with learning team |
| Inherent L, S, score, band | Numbers (no controls assumed) | Yes | Team |
| Controls in place, by hierarchy level | Text, numbered by level | Yes | Team |
| Levels considered and rejected, and why | Text | Yes for High and Extreme | Team |
| Minimum staffing where staffing is a control | Number and roles | Where applicable | Program manager |
| Residual L, S, score, band | Numbers | Yes | Team |
| Residual accepted by (role) and date | Role, date | Yes for High and Extreme | Program manager / deputy chief / fire chief |
| Owning program (link to its chapter) | Link | Yes | HSO |
| Owning team and program manager (role) | Text | Yes | HSO |
| SWPs that deliver the controls (links) | Links | Yes | Team lead |
| Training that delivers the controls | Course or module names; currency rule | Yes | Training officer |
| Inspection or test items that verify the controls | Checklist references | Yes | HSO |
| Indicator(s) for the control | From the indicator set | Yes for High and Extreme | Team lead |
| Learning-team session date and write-up reference | Date, link | Yes for High and Extreme | Team lead |
| JOHSC consultation date (where safety-sensitive change) | Date, minute reference | Where applicable | JOHSC consultant |
| Related register entries (Corrective Action Register IDs) | IDs | Where applicable | HSO |
| Last reviewed, next review, trigger events since last review | Dates, text | Yes | Team lead |
| Evidence references (reports, standards, external learning) | Citations | Yes | Team lead |

## 12. Seed hazard inventory

The inventory below seeds a new register. It is generic: a department switches areas off per its Profile, scores each entry on its own records, writes the controls as they are actually done, and adds what is local. Controls are listed in hierarchy order and abbreviated; each program module expands them. Sources for the hazards and failure modes are the NIOSH fatality investigation record ([Hard et al., 2019](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/hazard-profile-and-risk-register-method#ref-hard-2019); NIOSH, n.d.-b), the USFA fatality reports [(USFA, 2025)](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/hazard-profile-and-risk-register-method#ref-usfa-2025), the Ontario firefighter guidance notes (MLITSD, n.d.), the NTSB study of lithium battery fires [(NTSB, 2020)](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/hazard-profile-and-risk-register-method#ref-ntsb-2020), the IAFF and UL FSRI energy storage research [(IAFF et al., 2023)](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/hazard-profile-and-risk-register-method#ref-iaff-2023), a 2023 provincial wildfire after-action report [(Nova Scotia Department of Natural Resources and Renewables, 2024)](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/hazard-profile-and-risk-register-method#ref-nova-scotia-department-of-natural-resources-and-renewables-2024), the NIOSH fire station exhaust evaluation [(NIOSH, 2026b)](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/hazard-profile-and-risk-register-method#ref-niosh-2026b), CSA Z1003-13 and [NFPA 1550 (2024)](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/hazard-profile-and-risk-register-method#ref-nfpa-1550).

### 12.1 Structural fire (SF)

| ID | Hazard | Typical harm | Typical controls (hierarchy order) | Owning program |
|:---|:---|:---|:---|:---|
| SF-01 | Rapid fire progression, flashover and flow path in ventilation-limited fires | Burns, death from thermal insult | Substitution: transitional attack where indicated; engineering: thermal imaging, door control; administrative: 360 size-up, coordinated ventilation, fire dynamics training, water on the fire before entry where indicated; PPE: full ensemble and SCBA | [Emergency Operations Safety](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/emergency-operations-safety-program) |
| SF-02 | Structural collapse of lightweight or engineered assemblies under fire | Crush, entrapment, death | Elimination: no interior operations where trusses are exposed to fire; administrative: construction identification and register, time-since-ignition reasoning, collapse zones, defensive triggers, pre-plans; engineering: TIC (not for judging structure) | [Emergency Operations Safety](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/emergency-operations-safety-program) |
| SF-03 | Floor collapse over a basement fire | Fall into fire, death | Elimination: no operations above a basement fire until it is controlled; administrative: basement fire SOG, sounding, exterior attack options | [Emergency Operations Safety](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/emergency-operations-safety-program) |
| SF-04 | Disorientation and separation from the crew inside a structure | Lost firefighter, air depletion, death | Administrative: crew integrity, hose line as a lifeline, thermal imaging, accountability and PAR, mayday training, search rope in large areas; engineering: radio per member | [Emergency Operations Safety](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/emergency-operations-safety-program) |
| SF-05 | Running out of air inside the structure | Asphyxiation, death | Administrative: air management program (exit before the low-air alarm), work cycles, entry control recording time and air; engineering: end-of-service-time indicator, heads-up display | [Respiratory Protection](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/respiratory-protection-program) |
| SF-06 | Falls through fire-weakened roofs during vertical ventilation | Fall into fire, death | Elimination: no roof operations on lightweight roofs with fire below; substitution: horizontal or mechanical ventilation; administrative: sounding, roof ladders, two means of egress, roof SOG; PPE: full ensemble | [Working at Heights and Fall Protection](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/working-at-heights-and-fall-protection-program) |
| SF-07 | Steam and thermal burns during attack | Burns | Administrative: nozzle technique and flow, door control, hood and glove discipline; PPE: ensemble interface integrity | [Emergency Operations Safety](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/emergency-operations-safety-program) |
| SF-08 | Contact with energized electrical systems inside structures | Electrocution | Administrative: utility control, electrical emergencies SOG, locate panels in size-up; engineering: utility disconnect; PPE: gloves | [Hazardous Materials, CBRN and Energy Hazards](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/hazardous-materials-cbrn-and-energy-hazards-program) |
| SF-09 | Backdraft and smoke explosion | Blast, burns, death | Administrative: reading smoke, ventilation discipline, no entry into closed-up well-developed fires without coordinated ventilation; PPE | [Emergency Operations Safety](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/emergency-operations-safety-program) |
| SF-10 | Struck by falling debris, glass, exterior wall collapse at defensive fires | Crush, lacerations, death | Engineering: aerial and monitor positioning; administrative: collapse zones (full height plus), exposure building assessment, ISO assignment; PPE: helmet, eye protection | [Emergency Operations Safety](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/emergency-operations-safety-program) |
| SF-11 | Hose line burst, coupling failure, charged line movement | Strike injury, loss of attack | Engineering: hose testing annually; administrative: hose handling, pump pressure discipline | [Apparatus, Driving and Roadway Operations](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/apparatus-driving-and-roadway-operations-program) |

### 12.2 Overhaul and salvage (OV)

| ID | Hazard | Typical harm | Typical controls (hierarchy order) | Owning program |
|:---|:---|:---|:---|:---|
| OV-01 | Inhalation of carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide, aldehydes and particulate during overhaul | Acute poisoning; occupational cancer; cardiac strain | Administrative: SCBA through overhaul in every atmosphere not proven clean by monitoring, air monitoring before doffing, rotation; PPE: SCBA | [Respiratory Protection](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/respiratory-protection-program) |
| OV-02 | Dermal absorption of combustion products through the hood, neck, hands and contaminated gear | Occupational cancer | Engineering: particulate-blocking hoods, clean second set; administrative: on-scene preliminary exposure reduction, hood swap, wipes, shower within the hour; PPE: ensemble interface | [Decontamination and Contamination Control](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/decontamination-and-contamination-control-program) |
| OV-03 | Hidden fire and re-ignition during and after overhaul | Burns, trapped members, loss of structure | Engineering: thermal imaging; administrative: systematic overhaul SOG, fire watch | [Emergency Operations Safety](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/emergency-operations-safety-program) |
| OV-04 | Collapse of fire-weakened structure during overhaul | Crush, death | Administrative: structural assessment before overhaul, no overhaul in collapse-prone areas, ISO assignment; elimination: leave it for demolition | [Emergency Operations Safety](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/emergency-operations-safety-program) |
| OV-05 | Cuts, punctures and eye injuries from debris, nails, glass, tools | Lacerations, eye injury | Administrative: tool handling, debris management; PPE: gloves, eye protection, structural boots | [Protective Clothing and Equipment](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/protective-clothing-and-equipment-program) |
| OV-06 | Disturbance of asbestos, silica and lead in older structures | Occupational disease | Administrative: building age awareness, wet methods, SCBA through overhaul, exposure reporting; PPE | [Occupational Cancer Prevention, Exposure Tracking and Screening](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/occupational-cancer-prevention-exposure-tracking-and-screening-program) |
| OV-07 | Heat strain during prolonged overhaul in full PPE | Heat illness; cardiac event | Administrative: rehab triggers by cylinder and time, rotation, hydration, cooling; engineering: cooling resources | [Firefighter Rehabilitation at Incidents and Training](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/firefighter-rehabilitation-program) |

### 12.3 Wildland and interface (WL)

| ID | Hazard | Typical harm | Typical controls (hierarchy order) | Owning program |
|:---|:---|:---|:---|:---|
| WL-01 | Burnover and entrapment (wind shift, uphill run, light fuels, chimneys and saddles) | Burns, death | Elimination: disengage when LCES cannot be met; administrative: lookouts, communications, escape routes, safety zones, weather monitoring, trigger points, structure protection roles agreed with the wildland agency; PPE: wildland ensemble, fire shelter where adopted | [Wildland and Interface](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/wildland-and-interface-program) |
| WL-02 | Falling trees and snags | Crush, death | Administrative: snag assessment, danger-tree marking, no work under burning snags, faller qualification; PPE: helmet | [Wildland and Interface](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/wildland-and-interface-program) |
| WL-03 | Chainsaw injuries | Lacerations, amputation | Administrative: saw qualification, swamper, maintenance; PPE: chaps, eye and hearing protection | [Wildland and Interface](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/wildland-and-interface-program) |
| WL-04 | Heat illness and sudden cardiac events from exertion, dehydration and structural PPE worn in wildland work | Heat stroke, death | Substitution: wildland PPE in place of structural ensemble; administrative: work-rest cycles, hydration, medical fitness, rehab | [Heat, Cold and Weather](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/heat-cold-and-weather-program) |
| WL-05 | Smoke and carbon monoxide exposure during mop-up and near burning structures | Respiratory injury; CO poisoning; cancer | Administrative: rotation, CO monitoring, respiratory protection decision rule, exposure reporting; PPE: respirator appropriate to the hazard | [Wildland and Interface](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/wildland-and-interface-program) |
| WL-06 | UTV, ATV and tender rollovers on soft shoulders and back roads | Crush, death | Engineering: rollover protection, seat belts; administrative: operator training, speed, load limits, route selection | [Apparatus, Driving and Roadway Operations](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/apparatus-driving-and-roadway-operations-program) |
| WL-07 | Aircraft operations: retardant and water drops, rotor wash, airspace confusion, hobby drones | Strike injury, crash | Administrative: airspace coordination, drop zone clearance, aviation safety briefing, RPAS grounding rule | [Wildland and Interface](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/wildland-and-interface-program) |
| WL-08 | Multi-day deployment fatigue without hour limits | Errors, injury, cardiac events, psychological injury | Administrative: deployment length limits, rotation, rest and sleep provision, fatigue checks | [Wildland and Interface](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/wildland-and-interface-program) |
| WL-09 | Role confusion between agencies on structure protection | Members exposed beyond their training | Administrative: written interagency roles with the provincial or territorial wildland agency ([J35 Wildland and Interface Fire](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/j35-wildland-and-interface-fire)), unified command, go and no-go rules | [Wildland and Interface](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/wildland-and-interface-program) |

### 12.4 Hazardous materials, CBRN and energy hazards (HM)

| ID | Hazard | Typical harm | Typical controls (hierarchy order) | Owning program |
|:---|:---|:---|:---|:---|
| HM-01 | Entry into unknown or toxic atmospheres (CO, HCN, H2S, CO2, refrigerants) | Poisoning, asphyxiation, death | Elimination: no entry until monitored; engineering: multi-gas monitoring before and continuously; administrative: action levels, bump and calibration; PPE: SCBA default | [Hazardous Materials, CBRN and Energy Hazards](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/hazardous-materials-cbrn-and-energy-hazards-program) |
| HM-02 | PPE mismatch: structural ensemble used as chemical protection | Chemical burns, systemic poisoning | Administrative: PPE selection by hazard class, no entry beyond trained level; PPE: chemical protective clothing to NFPA 1990 | [Hazardous Materials, CBRN and Energy Hazards](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/hazardous-materials-cbrn-and-energy-hazards-program) |
| HM-03 | Ignition of a flammable atmosphere | Blast, burns, death | Elimination: isolate ignition sources, evacuate; engineering: intrinsically safe equipment, LEL monitoring; administrative: no switching, no entry above action level | [Hazardous Materials, CBRN and Energy Hazards](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/hazardous-materials-cbrn-and-energy-hazards-program) |
| HM-04 | Electric vehicle and lithium battery thermal runaway, toxic off-gas, stranded energy and re-ignition hours to weeks later | Burns, toxic exposure, re-ignition at the tow yard | Administrative: identification, isolation, sustained water supply, TIC monitoring, no overhaul of damaged packs, escort and handover to the recovery site with a clear area and monitoring period, dispatch screening; PPE: full ensemble and SCBA | [Hazardous Materials, CBRN and Energy Hazards](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/hazardous-materials-cbrn-and-energy-hazards-program) |
| HM-05 | Energy storage system deflagration from accumulated battery gases in garages and containers | Blast injury, death | Elimination: defensive unless life hazard; administrative: Identify, Shutdown, Watch; ventilation assessment before entry; pre-plans and CAD flags; no overhaul of a damaged ESS | [Hazardous Materials, CBRN and Energy Hazards](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/hazardous-materials-cbrn-and-energy-hazards-program) |
| HM-06 | Solar photovoltaic arrays that remain energized after utility disconnect | Electrocution, arc burns | Administrative: PV always-energized rule, no cutting of conduit, roof operations restricted, pre-plans; engineering: rapid shutdown where installed | [Hazardous Materials, CBRN and Energy Hazards](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/hazardous-materials-cbrn-and-energy-hazards-program) |
| HM-07 | Opioid exposure when handling bulk powders, and over-reaction that delays patient care | Intoxication (rare); delayed care | Administrative: evidence-based exposure guidance, naloxone protocol, scene control; PPE: gloves, respiratory protection for bulk powders only | [Infection Control and Medical Response Safety](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/infection-control-and-medical-response-safety-program) |
| HM-08 | Clandestine drug labs: explosions, booby traps, chemical exposure | Blast, chemical injury | Elimination: withdraw and isolate; administrative: recognition training, police lead, hazmat technician entry only | [Hazardous Materials, CBRN and Energy Hazards](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/hazardous-materials-cbrn-and-energy-hazards-program) |
| HM-09 | Decontamination skipped; contaminated gear in the cab; exposure not recorded | Occupational disease; lost presumptive claim ([J32 Workers' Compensation and Firefighter Presumptions](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/j32-workers-compensation-and-firefighter-presumptions)) | Administrative: technical decon procedure, clean cab rule, exposure report after every entry; engineering: decon equipment on the hazmat unit | [Decontamination and Contamination Control](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/decontamination-and-contamination-control-program) |
| HM-10 | Propane and natural gas: BLEVE at tank fires; explosion on entry at high gas concentration | Blast, burns, death | Elimination: evacuate and isolate; administrative: tank fire SOG and distances, LEL monitoring, utility control, no switching | [Hazardous Materials, CBRN and Energy Hazards](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/hazardous-materials-cbrn-and-energy-hazards-program) |
| HM-11 | Hazardous products in stations and shops (fuels, solvents, cleaning agents, foam concentrates) | Chemical injury, fire | Substitution: safer products; engineering: ventilation and storage; administrative: WHMIS labels, safety data sheets, training; PPE | [WHMIS and Hazard Communication](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/policy-hazardous-materials-and-whmis) |

### 12.5 Working at heights (HT)

| ID | Hazard | Typical harm | Typical controls (hierarchy order) | Owning program |
|:---|:---|:---|:---|:---|
| HT-01 | Falls from aerial ladder tips and platforms, including repositioning with a member on the device | Fall, death | Engineering: operator at the pedestal in sight and voice contact; administrative: tie-off rule, no repositioning with members on the device; PPE: ladder belt or harness to the standard | [Working at Heights and Fall Protection](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/working-at-heights-and-fall-protection-program) |
| HT-02 | Falls from apparatus tops while loading hose and from the rear step | Fracture, head injury | Engineering: hose bed fall protection, handrails, low hose beds in specification; administrative: no riding the tailboard, hose loading procedure; PPE | [Working at Heights and Fall Protection](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/working-at-heights-and-fall-protection-program) |
| HT-03 | Ground ladder slip, overload or failure | Fall, fracture | Engineering: annual ladder testing; administrative: angle, heel, climbing technique, load limits, heat-damaged ladders removed | [Working at Heights and Fall Protection](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/working-at-heights-and-fall-protection-program) |
| HT-04 | Falls on training towers where fireground habits carry over and fall protection is not rigged | Fall, death | Engineering: engineered anchorages on towers; administrative: training-ground fall protection rule distinct from emergency carve-outs | [Training Safety and Live Fire](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/training-safety-and-live-fire-program) |
| HT-05 | Suspension trauma after an arrested fall with no rescue plan | Death from suspension | Administrative: rescue plan before any fall-arrest work, trauma straps, trained rescuers on site | [Working at Heights and Fall Protection](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/working-at-heights-and-fall-protection-program) |
| HT-06 | Pitched roof work without fall protection where exempt rules do not apply | Fall | Elimination: ground-based options; administrative: roof SOG, roof ladders, fall protection where the carve-out does not apply | [Working at Heights and Fall Protection](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/working-at-heights-and-fall-protection-program) |

### 12.6 Confined space (CS)

| ID | Hazard | Typical harm | Typical controls (hierarchy order) | Owning program |
|:---|:---|:---|:---|:---|
| CS-01 | Rescuer entry without atmospheric monitoring or SCBA (manure pits, sewers, tanks); multiple-fatality would-be-rescuer events | Asphyxiation, poisoning, death | Elimination: no entry without monitoring and air; engineering: monitoring, ventilation, retrieval systems; administrative: entry permit, attendant, rescue plan; PPE: SCBA or supplied air | [Confined Space](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/confined-space-program) |
| CS-02 | Atmosphere changes after a single test | Poisoning | Engineering: continuous monitoring; administrative: re-test on any change, withdrawal triggers | [Confined Space](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/confined-space-program) |
| CS-03 | Non-intrinsically safe equipment in a flammable atmosphere | Explosion | Engineering: intrinsically safe tools, lights and radios; administrative: equipment list per space | [Confined Space](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/confined-space-program) |
| CS-04 | Retrieval line fouled, tripod not rated, harness attached at the wrong point | Failed rescue, fall | Engineering: rated retrieval systems; administrative: rigging check, training, inspection | [Confined Space](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/confined-space-program) |
| CS-05 | Engulfment by flowable material | Suffocation, death | Elimination: isolate feed; engineering: lockout; administrative: no entry until isolated | [Confined Space](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/confined-space-program) |
| CS-06 | Accepting designated rescue service status for industry without drills in the actual spaces | Unprepared rescue, death | Administrative: written agreement with pre-plans, drills in the spaces, realistic response times, what the client must supply | [Confined Space](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/confined-space-program) |
| CS-07 | Mechanical and electrical hazards inside spaces not locked out | Crush, electrocution | Engineering: lockout and tagout before entry; administrative: verification | [Confined Space](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/confined-space-program) |

### 12.7 Trench and structural collapse (TC)

| ID | Hazard | Typical harm | Typical controls (hierarchy order) | Owning program |
|:---|:---|:---|:---|:---|
| TC-01 | Secondary trench collapse onto rescuers entering an unprotected trench | Crush, death | Elimination: no entry until protective systems are placed; engineering: shoring and panels; administrative: trench SOG, soil assessment, no reliance on “stable-looking” clay | [Trench and Structural Collapse](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/trench-and-structural-collapse-rescue-program) |
| TC-02 | Spoil pile, apparatus and vibration too close to the lip | Collapse | Administrative: distances for spoil and vehicles, engines off or moved | [Trench and Structural Collapse](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/trench-and-structural-collapse-rescue-program) |
| TC-03 | Atmospheric hazards in trenches with sewer or fuel exposure | Poisoning | Engineering: monitoring and ventilation; administrative: test before entry | [Trench and Structural Collapse](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/trench-and-structural-collapse-rescue-program) |
| TC-04 | Freelancing into voids at a structural collapse; no accountability; no engineer | Secondary collapse, death | Administrative: collapse SOG, accountability, structural specialist, shoring before void entry, ISO early | [Trench and Structural Collapse](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/trench-and-structural-collapse-rescue-program) |
| TC-05 | Secondary collapse of an adjacent or uninvolved structure | Crush, death | Administrative: collapse zones for every structure in the area, monitoring, evacuation signal | [Trench and Structural Collapse](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/trench-and-structural-collapse-rescue-program) |
| TC-06 | Silica and dust in collapse work | Respiratory disease | Engineering: wet methods; PPE: respiratory protection | [Trench and Structural Collapse](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/trench-and-structural-collapse-rescue-program) |

### 12.8 Rope rescue (RR)

| ID | Hazard | Typical harm | Typical controls (hierarchy order) | Owning program |
|:---|:---|:---|:---|:---|
| RR-01 | Anchor failure or single-point systems | Fall, death | Engineering: bombproof anchors, redundant systems; administrative: anchor assessment, system safety check before loading | [Rope Rescue](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/rope-rescue-program) |
| RR-02 | Rope cut on an unprotected edge | Fall, death | Engineering: edge protection; administrative: edge management role | [Rope Rescue](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/rope-rescue-program) |
| RR-03 | Belay failure (hands-off, unlocked device) | Fall | Administrative: belay competency, dedicated belayer, device standards | [Rope Rescue](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/rope-rescue-program) |
| RR-04 | Skill fade from infrequent use leading to rigging errors under time pressure | Fall | Administrative: currency requirements, quarterly rigging drills, pre-rigged kits, checklists | [Rope Rescue](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/rope-rescue-program) |
| RR-05 | Mixing recreational or unknown-history hardware with rescue systems | Equipment failure | Administrative: equipment standards, logs, retirement rules; engineering: certified hardware | [Rope Rescue](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/rope-rescue-program) |
| RR-06 | Helicopter interface: static discharge, rotor strike, unplanned attachment to the aircraft | Electrocution, strike, death | Administrative: helicopter safety training, crew chief control, grounding of lines, no attachment to aircraft | [Rope Rescue](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/rope-rescue-program) |
| RR-07 | Training rappelling with inadequate anchors, belay or supervision | Fall, death | Administrative: training SOG, instructor qualification, ground supervision, pre-use inspection | [Training Safety and Live Fire](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/training-safety-and-live-fire-program) |

### 12.9 Water, ice and swiftwater (WI)

| ID | Hazard | Typical harm | Typical controls (hierarchy order) | Owning program |
|:---|:---|:---|:---|:---|
| WI-01 | Rescuer drowning: no PFD, untethered entry, entry beyond training | Drowning | Elimination: shore-based and reach techniques first; administrative: PFD within three metres of water, no entry beyond training level, go and no-go card; PPE: PFD, suit | [Water, Ice and Swiftwater Rescue](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/water-ice-and-swiftwater-rescue-program) |
| WI-02 | Foot entrapment and tether without quick release in current | Drowning | Administrative: swiftwater technique, quick-release harness rule, no tethered entry in current without training; PPE: swiftwater PFD with quick release | [Water, Ice and Swiftwater Rescue](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/water-ice-and-swiftwater-rescue-program) |
| WI-03 | Boat capsizing, ejection, no kill cord, overloading | Drowning, strike | Engineering: kill cord, vessel suitable to conditions; administrative: operator competency, load limits, weather limits; PPE: PFD | [Water, Ice and Swiftwater Rescue](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/water-ice-and-swiftwater-rescue-program) |
| WI-04 | Ice break-through with multiple rescuers on thin ice; rescuer not suited | Drowning, hypothermia | Administrative: one rescuer on the ice, tethered, suited, belayed; shore team; PPE: ice rescue suit | [Water, Ice and Swiftwater Rescue](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/water-ice-and-swiftwater-rescue-program) |
| WI-05 | Cold shock and hypothermia | Cardiac arrest, hypothermia | Administrative: immersion limits, rehab and rewarming plan, rotation; PPE: dry suits | [Heat, Cold and Weather](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/heat-cold-and-weather-program) |
| WI-06 | Low-head dams and hydraulics | Drowning | Elimination: no approach from upstream; administrative: dam identification, pre-plans | [Water, Ice and Swiftwater Rescue](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/water-ice-and-swiftwater-rescue-program) |
| WI-07 | Contaminated flood water exposure | Infection, chemical injury | Administrative: decontamination, immunization, exposure reporting; PPE: dry suit | [Infection Control and Medical Response Safety](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/infection-control-and-medical-response-safety-program) |
| WI-08 | Dive operations without a standby diver, entanglement, poor visibility, unfit divers | Drowning | Administrative: compliance with the applicable occupational diving rules ([J29 Occupational Diving](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/j29-occupational-diving)), standby diver, medical screening, equipment inspection (where provided) | [Water, Ice and Swiftwater Rescue](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/water-ice-and-swiftwater-rescue-program) |

### 12.10 Medical response (MR)

| ID | Hazard | Typical harm | Typical controls (hierarchy order) | Owning program |
|:---|:---|:---|:---|:---|
| MR-01 | Needlestick from recapping or unsecured sharps | Bloodborne infection | Engineering: safety-engineered devices, sharps containers; administrative: no recapping, exposure reporting within the prophylaxis window | [Infection Control and Medical Response Safety](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/infection-control-and-medical-response-safety-program) |
| MR-02 | Splash exposure to blood and body fluids | Infection | Administrative: universal precautions; PPE: eye protection, gloves, gowns | [Infection Control and Medical Response Safety](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/infection-control-and-medical-response-safety-program) |
| MR-03 | Airborne and droplet transmission including aerosol-generating procedures | Respiratory infection, outbreak in the station | Engineering: ventilation; administrative: screening questions, respirator rule for AGPs, immunization; PPE: fit-tested N95 or better | [Infection Control and Medical Response Safety](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/infection-control-and-medical-response-safety-program) |
| MR-04 | Assault by patient or bystander | Injury, psychological injury | Administrative: staging until police secure, scene assessment, two-member rule, de-escalation training, restraint policy | [Workplace Violence](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/workplace-violence-and-harassment-program) |
| MR-05 | Lifting and moving patients | Back injury | Engineering: lifting devices, stair chairs; administrative: team lifts, technique training | [Infection Control and Medical Response Safety](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/infection-control-and-medical-response-safety-program) |
| MR-06 | Struck by traffic at a roadway medical scene | Death, serious injury | Engineering: apparatus blocking; administrative: traffic incident management; PPE: high-visibility apparel | [Apparatus, Driving and Roadway Operations](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/apparatus-driving-and-roadway-operations-program) |
| MR-07 | Scabies, bedbugs and other infestations transferred to apparatus and stations | Infestation, skin disease | Administrative: recognition, equipment and uniform handling, laundering at the station | [Infection Control and Medical Response Safety](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/infection-control-and-medical-response-safety-program) |
| MR-08 | Exposure unreported or reported late, missing the post-exposure prophylaxis window | Preventable infection | Administrative: 24-hour reporting route posted, officer duty to report, infection control officer on call | [Infection Control and Medical Response Safety](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/infection-control-and-medical-response-safety-program) |

### 12.11 Apparatus and driving (AD)

| ID | Hazard | Typical harm | Typical controls (hierarchy order) | Owning program |
|:---|:---|:---|:---|:---|
| AD-01 | Intersection collisions during emergency response | Death, serious injury, civilian casualties | Administrative: intersection rules (stop or slow to a stop at red), response mode selection, speed limits, driver training and annual evaluation; engineering: telematics, intersection pre-emption where installed | [Apparatus, Driving and Roadway Operations](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/apparatus-driving-and-roadway-operations-program) |
| AD-02 | Tanker and tender rollover (high centre of gravity, partial loads, rural roads, speed) | Death | Engineering: baffles, stability control in specification; administrative: tanker-specific driver training, speed, route knowledge, full or empty rule | [Apparatus, Driving and Roadway Operations](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/apparatus-driving-and-roadway-operations-program) |
| AD-03 | Ejection from unbelted seats; standing in the cab to don SCBA | Death | Engineering: seat-mounted SCBA brackets, belt sensors; administrative: seat belt rule for every occupant, no donning en route, officer check before moving | [Apparatus, Driving and Roadway Operations](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/apparatus-driving-and-roadway-operations-program) |
| AD-04 | Backing strikes on members and civilians | Crush, death | Engineering: cameras and sensors; administrative: spotter rule, backing procedure, no backing without a spotter unless alone and documented | [Apparatus, Driving and Roadway Operations](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/apparatus-driving-and-roadway-operations-program) |
| AD-05 | Falls from apparatus steps, tailboards and cab | Fracture, head injury | Engineering: steps and handholds to standard, lighting; administrative: three points of contact, no riding exterior positions | [Working at Heights and Fall Protection](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/working-at-heights-and-fall-protection-program) |
| AD-06 | Volunteer personal vehicle response crashes; following apparatus too closely | Death | Administrative: personal vehicle response rules, no emergency privileges unless the law grants them ([J30 Emergency Vehicles, Drivers and Licensing](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/j30-emergency-vehicles-drivers-and-licensing)), parking at the scene, insurance confirmation; elimination: respond to the station not the scene where the department so decides | [Apparatus, Driving and Roadway Operations](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/apparatus-driving-and-roadway-operations-program) |
| AD-07 | Maintenance failures: brakes out of adjustment, aged tires, aerial structural failure without non-destructive testing, ground ladder failure without testing | Collision, collapse of device | Engineering: preventive maintenance to NFPA 1910, annual and five-year tests; administrative: daily checks, out-of-service criteria, qualified technicians | [Apparatus, Driving and Roadway Operations](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/apparatus-driving-and-roadway-operations-program) |
| AD-08 | Carbon monoxide and noise in cabs | Poisoning, hearing loss | Engineering: exhaust system maintenance, cab noise control, headsets; administrative: CO monitoring in cabs | [Hearing Conservation](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/hearing-conservation-program) |

### 12.12 Roadway operations (RW)

| ID | Hazard | Typical harm | Typical controls (hierarchy order) | Owning program |
|:---|:---|:---|:---|:---|
| RW-01 | Struck by passing traffic while working outside the protected area | Death | Engineering: apparatus blocking in a protective position, advance warning, lighting; administrative: traffic incident management SOG, work inside the block; PPE: high-visibility apparel | [Apparatus, Driving and Roadway Operations](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/apparatus-driving-and-roadway-operations-program) |
| RW-02 | Secondary crash into the scene | Death, multiple casualties | Engineering: block vehicle upstream, cones and flares, traffic control partners; administrative: scene size for speed and sight lines | [Apparatus, Driving and Roadway Operations](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/apparatus-driving-and-roadway-operations-program) |
| RW-03 | Drivers blinded by emergency lighting at night | Struck-by | Engineering: lighting discipline (reduce forward-facing lights), reflective striping; administrative: night operations rules | [Apparatus, Driving and Roadway Operations](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/apparatus-driving-and-roadway-operations-program) |
| RW-04 | Working on the traffic side of apparatus | Struck-by | Administrative: traffic-side rule, pump operator position, equipment mounting on the protected side | [Apparatus, Driving and Roadway Operations](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/apparatus-driving-and-roadway-operations-program) |
| RW-05 | Downed power lines and energized vehicles at collisions | Electrocution | Administrative: limits of approach, step potential awareness, utility control before touching, no approach to a vehicle in contact with a line | [Hazardous Materials, CBRN and Energy Hazards](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/hazardous-materials-cbrn-and-energy-hazards-program) |
| RW-06 | Airbag deployment, high-strength steel and hybrid systems during extrication | Strike, cut, electrocution | Administrative: vehicle identification, disconnect procedure, tool positioning; PPE | [Hazardous Materials, CBRN and Energy Hazards](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/hazardous-materials-cbrn-and-energy-hazards-program) |

### 12.13 Training (TR)

| ID | Hazard | Typical harm | Typical controls (hierarchy order) | Owning program |
|:---|:---|:---|:---|:---|
| TR-01 | Live fire flashover from excessive fuel loads, flammable liquids, multiple fires, fire set between students and the exit | Burns, death | Elimination: no flammable liquids, no live victims, no multiple fires; administrative: the live fire requirements of the training standard met in full [(NFPA 1400, 2026)](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/hazard-profile-and-risk-register-method#ref-nfpa-1400), instructor-in-charge and safety officer, pre-burn walk-through, fuel limits, evacuation signal, instructor to student ratio, backup line staffed, RIT; engineering: burn building design | [Training Safety and Live Fire](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/training-safety-and-live-fire-program) |
| TR-02 | Sudden cardiac events during physical training and evolutions | Death | Administrative: medical fitness before high-exertion training, graded conditioning, rehab, AED and trained responders present | [Medical, Fitness and Wellness](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/medical-fitness-and-wellness-program) |
| TR-03 | Exertional heat stroke in recruits and at repeated evolutions | Death | Administrative: heat index limits, work-rest cycles, hydration, acclimatization, cooling, medical monitoring | [Heat, Cold and Weather](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/heat-cold-and-weather-program) |
| TR-04 | Falls from towers and ladders during training | Fracture, death | Engineering: anchorages; administrative: fall protection rule on the training ground, ladder training SOG, pre-use inspection | [Training Safety and Live Fire](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/training-safety-and-live-fire-program) |
| TR-05 | Forcible entry and tool strikes; eye injuries; burns from steam and flashover simulators | Lacerations, eye injury, burns | Administrative: prop SOGs, spacing, instructor control; PPE: eye protection, full ensemble | [Training Safety and Live Fire](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/training-safety-and-live-fire-program) |
| TR-06 | SCBA low-air events in mazes and search props | Panic, asphyxiation | Administrative: air management rules in training, instructor monitoring, emergency air, evacuation signal | [Respiratory Protection](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/respiratory-protection-program) |
| TR-07 | Artificial and theatrical smoke exposure | Respiratory complaints | Substitution: products with safety data; administrative: ventilation, exposure limits, respiratory protection decision | [Training Safety and Live Fire](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/training-safety-and-live-fire-program) |
| TR-08 | Driver-training ground collisions | Injury, damage | Administrative: course design, spotters, speed, instructor ratio | [Training Safety and Live Fire](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/training-safety-and-live-fire-program) |
| TR-09 | Training props and structures not inspected, acquired structures unsound | Collapse, fall | Administrative: pre-use checklist for every prop, annual competent-person inspection, acquired structure assessment | [Training Safety and Live Fire](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/training-safety-and-live-fire-program) |

### 12.14 Station and shop (SS)

| ID | Hazard | Typical harm | Typical controls (hierarchy order) | Owning program |
|:---|:---|:---|:---|:---|
| SS-01 | Chronic diesel exhaust exposure in bays and living areas | Occupational cancer, respiratory disease | Engineering: source capture on every apparatus, bay separation and pressurization, filtration; administrative: no idling in bays, interim controls where capture is absent | [Facilities and Station Safety](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/facilities-and-station-safety-program) |
| SS-02 | Contaminated PPE and equipment in living areas; gear taken home | Occupational cancer | Engineering: zoning, gear rooms with ventilation, laundering facilities; administrative: zoning rules, no gear in living areas or vehicles, no gear home | [Decontamination and Contamination Control](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/decontamination-and-contamination-control-program) |
| SS-03 | Falls: stairs, pole holes, hose towers, apparatus tops, ice at bay doors | Fracture, head injury | Engineering: guarding, lighting, ice control; administrative: housekeeping, snow and ice procedure | [Facilities and Station Safety](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/facilities-and-station-safety-program) |
| SS-04 | Crush and strike: bay doors, apparatus movement in bays, lifts and pits | Crush, death | Engineering: door sensors, lift inspection; administrative: spotter in bays, no walking under doors in motion | [Facilities and Station Safety](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/facilities-and-station-safety-program) |
| SS-05 | Lockout failures on apparatus hydraulics, PTO, aerials and electric apparatus high-voltage systems | Crush, electrocution | Engineering: lockout devices; administrative: lockout and tagout procedure, qualified persons for high-voltage work | [Facilities and Station Safety](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/facilities-and-station-safety-program) |
| SS-06 | Electrical shock and arc flash in shops and panels | Electrocution, burns | Engineering: GFCI, panel guarding; administrative: qualified persons only, electrical safety program | [Facilities and Station Safety](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/facilities-and-station-safety-program) |
| SS-07 | SCBA cylinder or fill-station rupture outside an enclosure; contaminated breathing air from compressor intake near exhaust | Blast; poisoning | Engineering: fill enclosure, intake location, air quality monitoring; administrative: operator training, quarterly air testing, cylinder hydrostatic test currency | [Respiratory Protection](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/respiratory-protection-program) |
| SS-08 | Carbon monoxide in dormitories from bay exhaust and generators | Poisoning, death | Engineering: CO alarms, exhaust separation; administrative: generator placement rules, alarm testing | [Facilities and Station Safety](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/facilities-and-station-safety-program) |
| SS-09 | Legionella, mould, asbestos and radon in older stations | Occupational disease | Engineering: surveys and remediation, water management; administrative: management plans, no PPE drying in living areas | [Facilities and Station Safety](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/facilities-and-station-safety-program) |
| SS-10 | Kitchen fires on turnout; space heaters; oily rags | Fire, burns | Engineering: stove shut-off on alarm, suppression; administrative: housekeeping rules, inspection | [Facilities and Station Safety](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/facilities-and-station-safety-program) |
| SS-11 | Sleep disruption and alerting-tone cardiac stress | Fatigue, cardiac strain | Engineering: ramped alerting tones, zoned alerting, dormitory design; administrative: night staffing and recovery rules | [Facilities and Station Safety](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/facilities-and-station-safety-program) |

### 12.15 Psychological (PS)

| ID | Hazard | Typical harm | Typical controls (hierarchy order) | Owning program |
|:---|:---|:---|:---|:---|
| PS-01 | Exposure to potentially traumatic events, single and cumulative | Post-traumatic stress injury, depression, substance use | Administrative: PTE protocol with activation and 72-hour contact, personal exposure reporting, peer support, clinical access, supervisor training, resilience education, time off after critical events | [Psychological Health and Safety and Peer Support](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/psychological-health-and-safety-and-peer-support-program) |
| PS-02 | Moral injury (unable to act, outcomes contrary to values, resource shortfalls) | Psychological injury | Administrative: learning reviews that acknowledge constraints, peer and clinical support, leadership acknowledgement | [Psychological Health and Safety and Peer Support](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/psychological-health-and-safety-and-peer-support-program) |
| PS-03 | Suicide risk | Death | Administrative: suicide prevention pathway, crisis access, peer and clinician training in risk assessment, postvention plan, means safety where relevant | [Psychological Health and Safety and Peer Support](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/psychological-health-and-safety-and-peer-support-program) |
| PS-04 | Organizational stressors: workload, lack of recognition, poor change management, role conflict, low psychological safety (CSA Z1003 factors) | Burnout, psychological injury, attrition | Administrative: Z1003 assessment and action plan, leadership behaviour expectations, meeting norms, response to reports, culture survey and feedback | [Psychological Health and Safety and Peer Support](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/psychological-health-and-safety-and-peer-support-program) |
| PS-05 | Harassment, hazing, bullying and gendered harassment in stations | Psychological injury, attrition | Administrative: violence and harassment program, independent complaints route, enforcement, supervisor training; leadership: visible standards | [Workplace Violence](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/workplace-violence-and-harassment-program) |
| PS-06 | Isolation of volunteer members after a critical call, with no shift to decompress in | Psychological injury | Administrative: volunteer-specific follow-up within 72 hours, peer supporters at volunteer stations, family orientation | [Psychological Health and Safety and Peer Support](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/psychological-health-and-safety-and-peer-support-program) |
| PS-07 | Line-of-duty death or serious injury of a colleague | Grief, psychological injury | Administrative: LODD response plan, family support, peer and clinical activation, funeral and recognition support | [Psychological Health and Safety and Peer Support](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/psychological-health-and-safety-and-peer-support-program) |

### 12.16 Violence and harassment (VI)

| ID | Hazard | Typical harm | Typical controls (hierarchy order) | Owning program |
|:---|:---|:---|:---|:---|
| VI-01 | Assault at a scene before police arrive; dispatch information not reaching crews | Injury, death | Administrative: staging rule for violence flags, dispatch protocol, scene size-up, withdrawal rule; engineering: CAD flags | [Workplace Violence](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/workplace-violence-and-harassment-program) |
| VI-02 | Weapons at scenes; needles and edged weapons during patient care | Injury, death | Administrative: scene assessment, police lead, patient search protocol with police, body position; PPE: gloves | [Workplace Violence](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/workplace-violence-and-harassment-program) |
| VI-03 | Encampment, hoarding and squalor scenes | Assault, infection, collapse, needle injury | Administrative: scene SOGs, two-member rule, lighting, respiratory decision | [Workplace Violence](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/workplace-violence-and-harassment-program) |
| VI-04 | Lone work by inspectors, educators and officers | Assault | Administrative: lone-worker check-in, two-person rule for known risk, de-escalation training | [Workplace Violence](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/workplace-violence-and-harassment-program) |
| VI-05 | Domestic violence scenes | Assault | Administrative: staging and police coordination, withdrawal rule | [Workplace Violence](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/workplace-violence-and-harassment-program) |
| VI-06 | Active threat and hostile events | Death | Administrative: integrated response plan with police, warm zone protocols, training, ballistic protection decision | [Workplace Violence](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/workplace-violence-and-harassment-program) |
| VI-07 | Single member arriving alone in a personal vehicle at a violent scene | Assault | Administrative: no scene arrival in personal vehicles for violence flags, staging rule | [Workplace Violence](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/workplace-violence-and-harassment-program) |

### 12.17 Heat, cold and weather (HC)

| ID | Hazard | Typical harm | Typical controls (hierarchy order) | Owning program |
|:---|:---|:---|:---|:---|
| HC-01 | Exertional heat stroke and cardiac events in structural PPE | Death | Administrative: rehab triggers by cylinder, time and heat index; active cooling; hydration; medical monitoring thresholds; rotation; fitness | [Firefighter Rehabilitation at Incidents and Training](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/firefighter-rehabilitation-program) |
| HC-02 | Dehydration on long incidents | Heat illness, impaired judgement | Administrative: hydration schedule in rehab, fluids on every apparatus | [Firefighter Rehabilitation at Incidents and Training](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/firefighter-rehabilitation-program) |
| HC-03 | Hypothermia and frostbite at prolonged winter incidents and water rescues | Cold injury | Engineering: warming shelter, dry clothing cache; administrative: cold-weather rehab, rotation, wind chill limits | [Heat, Cold and Weather](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/heat-cold-and-weather-program) |
| HC-04 | Lightning strike on aerial operators and crews on roofs | Death | Administrative: lightning rule (lower aerials, clear roofs, shelter), weather monitoring | [Heat, Cold and Weather](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/heat-cold-and-weather-program) |
| HC-05 | Wind-driven collapse of aerials and falling limbs | Crush, death | Administrative: wind limits for aerial operation, storm scene assessment | [Heat, Cold and Weather](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/heat-cold-and-weather-program) |
| HC-06 | Carbon monoxide in rehab tents from heaters and generators | Poisoning | Engineering: CO alarms, heater placement; administrative: rehab sector set-up checklist | [Firefighter Rehabilitation at Incidents and Training](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/firefighter-rehabilitation-program) |
| HC-07 | Slips on ice at scenes and stations | Fracture | Engineering: traction aids, ice control; administrative: footwear, salting | [Facilities and Station Safety](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/facilities-and-station-safety-program) |

### 12.18 Noise (NO)

| ID | Hazard | Typical harm | Typical controls (hierarchy order) | Owning program |
|:---|:---|:---|:---|:---|
| NO-01 | Sirens and air horns inside and near the cab | Noise-induced hearing loss | Engineering: siren placement, cab insulation, headsets; administrative: window closure rule | [Hearing Conservation](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/hearing-conservation-program) |
| NO-02 | Pumps, saws, generators, extrication tools and fans at scenes | Hearing loss | Engineering: quieter equipment in specification; administrative: exposure limits; PPE: hearing protection on every apparatus | [Hearing Conservation](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/hearing-conservation-program) |
| NO-03 | Aircraft noise (ARFF, helicopter operations) | Hearing loss | PPE: hearing protection; administrative: positioning | [Hearing Conservation](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/hearing-conservation-program) |
| NO-04 | Impulse noise: airbag deployment, cylinder failure, explosions | Acute acoustic trauma | Administrative: airbag procedures; PPE | [Hearing Conservation](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/hearing-conservation-program) |
| NO-05 | Radio communications degraded by noise | Missed mayday or order | Engineering: noise-cancelling microphones, headsets; administrative: communications discipline | [Emergency Operations Safety](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/emergency-operations-safety-program) |
| NO-06 | No baseline or annual audiometry, so loss is found late | Unmanaged hearing loss | Administrative: audiometry program, threshold shift follow-up | [Hearing Conservation](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/hearing-conservation-program) |

### 12.19 Infectious disease (ID)

| ID | Hazard | Typical harm | Typical controls (hierarchy order) | Owning program |
|:---|:---|:---|:---|:---|
| ID-01 | Bloodborne pathogens (hepatitis B and C, HIV) | Chronic infection | Engineering: safety devices; administrative: immunization with titre, universal precautions, post-exposure route; PPE | [Infection Control and Medical Response Safety](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/infection-control-and-medical-response-safety-program) |
| ID-02 | Respiratory outbreaks in stations (influenza, COVID-19) through dormitories, kitchens and shared apparatus | Illness, staffing loss | Engineering: ventilation; administrative: immunization, stay-home rule, cleaning, screening during outbreaks; PPE | [Infection Control and Medical Response Safety](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/infection-control-and-medical-response-safety-program) |
| ID-03 | Tuberculosis contact without public health follow-up | Infection | Administrative: exposure reporting, public health liaison, screening | [Infection Control and Medical Response Safety](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/infection-control-and-medical-response-safety-program) |
| ID-04 | MRSA and skin infections from shared gym equipment and turnout gear | Skin infection | Administrative: cleaning schedules, no sharing of gear, hygiene | [Infection Control and Medical Response Safety](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/infection-control-and-medical-response-safety-program) |
| ID-05 | Lapsed immunization and titres | Preventable infection | Administrative: immunization program with records and declinations | [Infection Control and Medical Response Safety](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/infection-control-and-medical-response-safety-program) |
| ID-06 | Laundering contaminated uniforms at home | Household exposure | Engineering: station laundering; administrative: no uniforms home rule | [Decontamination and Contamination Control](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/decontamination-and-contamination-control-program) |
| ID-07 | Contaminated equipment returned to service | Cross-infection | Administrative: equipment decontamination procedure, tagging | [Infection Control and Medical Response Safety](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/infection-control-and-medical-response-safety-program) |

### 12.20 Fatigue (FA)

| ID | Hazard | Typical harm | Typical controls (hierarchy order) | Owning program |
|:---|:---|:---|:---|:---|
| FA-01 | Shifts over 24 hours including overtime; consecutive shifts | Errors, collisions, injury | Administrative: maximum hours and rest rules, overtime limits, fatigue self-report without penalty | [Fatigue and Hours of Work](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/policy-fatigue-and-hours-of-work) |
| FA-02 | Volunteer response after a full day’s work and through the night | Errors, driving risk | Administrative: call-out load monitoring, officer check of fitness to respond, relief crews, drive-home rules | [Fatigue and Hours of Work](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/policy-fatigue-and-hours-of-work) |
| FA-03 | Campaign and multi-day deployments | Cumulative fatigue, psychological injury | Administrative: deployment limits, rotation, rest facilities, rehab | [Wildland and Interface](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/wildland-and-interface-program) |
| FA-04 | Undiagnosed sleep disorders | Fatigue, cardiac risk | Administrative: sleep apnea screening in the medical program, treatment support | [Medical, Fitness and Wellness](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/medical-fitness-and-wellness-program) |
| FA-05 | Night alerting and high call volume stations | Chronic sleep loss | Engineering: alerting design; administrative: night staffing, recovery time, station rotation | [Fatigue and Hours of Work](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/policy-fatigue-and-hours-of-work) |
| FA-06 | Fatigue not reported for fear of being seen as weak | Unmanaged fatigue | Administrative: non-punitive fitness-for-duty policy, officer training, psychological safety norms | [Fatigue and Hours of Work](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/policy-fatigue-and-hours-of-work) |

### 12.21 Ergonomics and manual handling (ER)

| ID | Hazard | Typical harm | Typical controls (hierarchy order) | Owning program |
|:---|:---|:---|:---|:---|
| ER-01 | Hose loading and hose bed work | Back and shoulder injury | Engineering: low hose beds, hose handling aids; administrative: team loading, technique | [Facilities and Station Safety](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/facilities-and-station-safety-program) |
| ER-02 | Lifting and carrying patients, especially bariatric | Back injury | Engineering: lifting devices; administrative: additional resources rule, technique | [Infection Control and Medical Response Safety](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/infection-control-and-medical-response-safety-program) |
| ER-03 | Carrying equipment up stairs in high-rise and apartment buildings | Overexertion, cardiac strain | Administrative: equipment packaging, crew sizing, rotation, high-rise SOG | [Emergency Operations Safety](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/emergency-operations-safety-program) |
| ER-04 | Awkward postures in SCBA and full PPE | Musculoskeletal injury | Engineering: SCBA fit and harness design, lighter cylinders in specification; administrative: fitness program | [Medical, Fitness and Wellness](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/medical-fitness-and-wellness-program) |
| ER-05 | Repetitive strain at pump panels and in shops | Musculoskeletal injury | Engineering: panel design, tool selection; administrative: job rotation | [Facilities and Station Safety](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/facilities-and-station-safety-program) |
| ER-06 | Slips and trips on wet apparatus floors, hose, and ice | Fracture, sprain | Engineering: flooring, drainage, lighting; administrative: housekeeping, footwear | [Facilities and Station Safety](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/facilities-and-station-safety-program) |

### 12.22 RPAS (RP)

| ID | Hazard | Typical harm | Typical controls (hierarchy order) | Owning program |
|:---|:---|:---|:---|:---|
| RP-01 | Mid-air conflict with helicopters and air tankers | Aircraft crash | Administrative: airspace coordination, grounding rule when aircraft operate, federal operating rules compliance | [RPAS](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/rpas-program) |
| RP-02 | Fly-away or lost link over crowds | Strike injury | Engineering: return-to-home, geofencing; administrative: operating limits, crowd stand-off | [RPAS](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/rpas-program) |
| RP-03 | Propeller injuries at launch and recovery | Lacerations | Administrative: launch procedure, exclusion zone; PPE: eye protection | [RPAS](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/rpas-program) |
| RP-04 | Lithium polymer battery fires during charging and storage in stations | Station fire | Engineering: fire-rated charging bags and cabinets; administrative: never charge unattended, battery logs and retirement | [RPAS](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/rpas-program) |
| RP-05 | Unqualified pilots flying beyond certificate, night operations without training | Crash, enforcement | Administrative: pilot certification, program charter, night operations training and lighting | [RPAS](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/rpas-program) |
| RP-06 | Privacy and data chain of custody | Complaints, lost evidence | Administrative: data policy, retention, chain of custody | [RPAS](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/rpas-program) |

### 12.23 Marine firefighting (MA)

| ID | Hazard | Typical harm | Typical controls (hierarchy order) | Owning program |
|:---|:---|:---|:---|:---|
| MA-01 | Crew overboard without a PFD | Drowning | Administrative: PFD rule on deck, recovery drills; engineering: recovery equipment; PPE: PFD | [Marine Firefighting](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/marine-firefighting-program) |
| MA-02 | Cold-water immersion and hypothermia | Death | Administrative: immersion suits in season, recovery and rewarming plan; PPE | [Marine Firefighting](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/marine-firefighting-program) |
| MA-03 | Capsizing from free-surface effect and monitor reaction | Drowning | Engineering: vessel stability design; administrative: operator competency, monitor use limits, load management | [Marine Firefighting](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/marine-firefighting-program) |
| MA-04 | Carbon dioxide discharge with crews inside engine rooms | Asphyxiation | Administrative: shipboard entry SOG, system isolation confirmation, accountability | [Marine Firefighting](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/marine-firefighting-program) |
| MA-05 | Confined spaces in holds | Asphyxiation | Engineering: monitoring; administrative: no entry without confined space controls | [Confined Space](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/confined-space-program) |
| MA-06 | Night collisions and navigation errors | Collision, drowning | Engineering: navigation equipment; administrative: operator certification, night operation limits | [Marine Firefighting](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/marine-firefighting-program) |
| MA-07 | Unqualified operators (recreational card only) and inadequate vessel maintenance | Capsizing, breakdown | Administrative: commercial operator competency, maintenance program, pre-use checks | [Marine Firefighting](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/marine-firefighting-program) |

### 12.24 Airport rescue and firefighting (AP)

| ID | Hazard | Typical harm | Typical controls (hierarchy order) | Owning program |
|:---|:---|:---|:---|:---|
| AP-01 | Delayed response: agent quantity or vehicle not meeting the response test | Failed rescue | Administrative: annual response-time test, agent inventory, vehicle readiness checks | [Airport Rescue and Firefighting](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/airport-rescue-and-firefighting-program) |
| AP-02 | Airside vehicle collisions with aircraft and ground equipment | Death | Administrative: airside driving authorization, radio discipline, movement area rules | [Airport Rescue and Firefighting](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/airport-rescue-and-firefighting-program) |
| AP-03 | Composite fibre and smoke exposure at aircraft fires | Respiratory and dermal injury | Administrative: SCBA, wetting, exposure reporting; PPE: proximity ensemble | [Airport Rescue and Firefighting](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/airport-rescue-and-firefighting-program) |
| AP-04 | Dangerous goods in cargo | Chemical injury | Administrative: cargo manifest access, hazmat integration | [Hazardous Materials, CBRN and Energy Hazards](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/hazardous-materials-cbrn-and-energy-hazards-program) |
| AP-05 | Legacy PFAS foam contamination at training grounds | Chronic exposure | Substitution: fluorine-free foams; administrative: training ground remediation, exposure awareness | [Occupational Cancer Prevention, Exposure Tracking and Screening](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/occupational-cancer-prevention-exposure-tracking-and-screening-program) |
| AP-06 | Jet blast, engine ingestion and propeller strike | Death | Administrative: approach rules, engine shutdown confirmation | [Airport Rescue and Firefighting](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/airport-rescue-and-firefighting-program) |
| AP-07 | Fuel spill fires and re-ignition | Burns | Administrative: agent application, foam blanket maintenance, ignition control; PPE | [Airport Rescue and Firefighting](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/airport-rescue-and-firefighting-program) |

**Seed inventory count:** 180 hazards across 24 program areas.

> **Note: Customize**
>
> Switch off areas the Profile Worksheet marks Not applicable and record why. Keep Conditional areas with awareness-level entries. Add local hazards (rail, port, tunnels, high-rise, industrial brigades, long-term care occupancies, remote access). Score every entry on the department’s own records; never copy a score from another department. Replace the abbreviated controls with the controls as they are done here, from the learning-team sessions.

> **Tip: Volunteer and composite departments**
>
> Volunteer stations usually carry higher likelihood scores on AD-06, FA-02, PS-06, VI-07 and the technical rescue entries because of response patterns and currency. Score them honestly and separately where practice differs, and let the volunteer officers own those entries through the Volunteer Operations team.

## 13. Worked example: ten entries

A composite department, first register, Stage 1. Scores are illustrative. Roles only.

| ID | Hazard | Inherent L×S (band) | Controls in place (level) | Residual L×S (band) | Accepted by | Owner | Review |
|:---|:---|:---|:---|:---|:---|:---|:---|
| SF-05 | Running out of air inside a structure | 3×5 = 15 (High) | Admin: air management rule (exit at 50 percent remaining, trained 2026); entry control records time; engineering: EOSTI and HUD on all SCBA | 2×5 = 10 (High) | Deputy chief; plan (P2): quarterly air management drills at volunteer stations, PAR at 10-minute benchmarks | Respiratory Protection team; program manager (district chief) | Six months; trigger: any low-air event |
| OV-01 | Overhaul inhalation exposure | 5×4 = 20 (Extreme) | Admin: SCBA through overhaul written, not consistently followed at volunteer stations; monitoring on two of nine apparatus | 4×4 = 16 (High) | Deputy chief; plan (P2): monitors on every first-due apparatus, officer sign-off on SCBA at overhaul, exposure report rate as indicator | Respiratory Protection with Protective Clothing and Decontamination | Six months; trigger: exposure report rate below 90 percent |
| SF-02 | Lightweight construction collapse | 2×5 = 10 (High) | Admin: construction register from building permits (new), defensive triggers in SOG, collapse zones; engineering: TIC on every apparatus | 2×5 = 10 (High) | Fire chief, as an inherent risk of the declared service, with reasons recorded | Fire Suppression and Emergency Operations | Six months; trigger: any truss roof involvement |
| AD-01 | Intersection collisions | 3×5 = 15 (High) | Admin: intersection rule, annual driver evaluation (career only), telematics (career apparatus only) | 3×4 = 12 (High) | Deputy chief; plan: driver evaluation for volunteer drivers (P2, closure within 30 days, extended once to 90); telematics on volunteer apparatus is an improvement beyond that fix, a P4 (Improvement) item dated to the next budget cycle | Apparatus, Driving and Roadway | Six months |
| AD-06 | Volunteer personal vehicle response | 4×4 = 16 (High) | Admin: policy exists, not trained, not enforced | 4×4 = 16 (High) | Not accepted; Stage 1 critical item, P2: policy re-issued and enforced within 30 days, extended once to 90 days to train every volunteer station | Volunteer Operations with Apparatus, Driving and Roadway | 90 days |
| SS-01 | Diesel exhaust in bays | 5×4 = 20 (Extreme) | Engineering: source capture in three career stations; none in six volunteer stations; admin: no idling rule | 4×4 = 16 (High) | Deputy chief; P1, flagged Capital: the interim controls now in place (doors open, apparatus started outside) bring the score below 17 and are re-verified monthly; the six source-capture systems keep the P1 priority, with a dated plan in the capital request for the next budget cycle, approved by the fire chief and reviewed quarterly by the JOHSC | Facilities and Stations | Quarterly until systems installed |
| HC-01 | Heat stroke and cardiac events in PPE | 3×5 = 15 (High) | Admin: rehab SOG, rehab at working fires on career platoons; volunteer stations rarely set up rehab; medical program incomplete | 3×5 = 15 (High) | Deputy chief; plan (P2): rehab kit on every apparatus, rehab log rate indicator, volunteer medical tier | Health, Wellness and Rehab | Six months |
| PS-01 | Potentially traumatic event exposure | 5×3 = 15 (High) | Admin: peer support team (six trained), EFAP; no PTE protocol, no exposure reporting | 4×3 = 12 (High) | Deputy chief; plan (P2, extended once to 90 days): PTE protocol with 72-hour contact; personal exposure report in the records system | Psychological Health and Peer Support | Six months |
| WI-01 | Rescuer drowning | 2×5 = 10 (High) | Admin: PFD rule in SOG, shore-based only, go and no-go card (new); PPE: PFDs on all apparatus; training to shore-based level current for 70 percent | 2×5 = 10 (High) | Deputy chief; plan (P2): currency to 100 percent, ice rescue suits at three river stations | Water and Ice Rescue | Six months |
| VI-01 | Assault before police arrive | 3×3 = 9 (Moderate) | Admin: staging rule, dispatch violence flags, two-member rule | 2×3 = 6 (Moderate) | Program manager | Medical First Response | Annual |

Reading the example: six of ten entries sit High after controls, which is normal for a first register. The three Stage 1 actions it generates (AD-06, the PTE protocol, rehab kits and medical tier) are the kind of items the Gap Assessment’s top ten will also surface; the register and the gap assessment are meant to agree.

## 14. Accountability and closed feedback loop

| Element | Who | How |
|:---|:---|:---|
| Owner | Senior officer responsible for health and safety ({{Division Chief, Safety}}) for the register as a document; each entry’s program manager for its risk | The RACI in [01 Roles and Responsibilities](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/roles-and-responsibilities) section 4 |
| Doer | Program Improvement Teams (entries, scores, controls, learning-team sessions); HSO (structure, consolidation, external learning intake) | Section 4 cycle; team annual appraisal includes the register update |
| Verifier | JOHSC (standing consultant on every team; formal consultation on High and Extreme acceptances); internal audit (samples 10 percent of entries annually for currency, evidence and control verification); external review every three years | Audit category 3 in [02 Audit Checklist Master Index](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/audit-checklist-master-index) |
| Feedback | Quarterly team updates list new, re-scored and overdue entries; hazard reporters told the outcome within 30 days; members see the register for their program area; management review receives the High and Extreme list and movement | [03 Accountability and Reporting](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/accountability-and-reporting) |
| Closure | Every High and Extreme entry with a plan has a Corrective Action Register item with owner, priority (P2 for High, P1 for Extreme) and the scale’s dates; an overdue item escalates on its priority’s clock (a P1 to the fire chief at once; a P2 to the deputy chief at the due date and to the fire chief at 30 days overdue); an entry is only re-scored down with verified evidence | [Corrective Action Register](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/corrective-action-register) |

**Concern-to-answer route.** A member who reports a hazard hears from the HSO within 72 hours that it was received, and within 30 days what was decided and why, in person or in writing as they prefer. The share of reporters who confirm they heard back is an indicator.

**Loop test.** A volunteer firefighter reports on a Sunday night that the new tanker’s hose bed has no fall protection and members are walking on it to load hose. Within 24 hours an interim rule (load from the ground with the roller) is issued to the station. By Wednesday the HSO has acknowledged, HT-02 is re-scored to High for that apparatus, and the item is in the Corrective Action Register as a P2 with the Apparatus, Driving and Roadway program manager as owner. Within 30 days, extended once to 90 by the deputy chief, the Equipment Standards team has specified a retrofit, the JOHSC has been consulted, the retrofit is installed or the apparatus is restricted, and the firefighter has been told, by name, what happened to her report.

## Jurisdiction requirements

This chapter relies on the following legal requirements, which differ by province and territory. Check your jurisdiction’s section on each topic page before adopting it.

| Topic | What to check in your jurisdiction | Page |
|:---|:---|:---|
| OHS Policy and Program | Whether the department must have a written OHS program, and whether the program must contain a hazard identification system | [J03 OHS Policy and Program](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/j03-ohs-policy-and-program) |
| Hazard Assessment and Workplace Inspections | The duty to identify, assess, report and control hazards, whether the assessment must be written and repeated, and any fixed frequency for workplace inspections | [J04 Hazard Assessment and Workplace Inspections](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/j04-hazard-assessment-and-workplace-inspections) |
| Written Procedures and Committee Consultation | The duty to consult the committee when establishing or reviewing written policies, procedures and plans, including register entries that change a procedure (section 11) | [J06 Written Procedures and Committee Consultation](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/j06-written-procedures-and-committee-consultation) |
| Incident Reporting and Investigation | How the statute defines a serious injury for reporting to the regulator (the anchor for severity 4) and the reporting deadlines | [J08 Incident Reporting and Investigation](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/j08-incident-reporting-and-investigation) |
| Volunteer Firefighters | Any participation condition a volunteer must meet to benefit from the presumptions, which the exposure and attendance records must support | [J11 Volunteer Firefighters](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/j11-volunteer-firefighters) |
| Firefighter PPE and Protective Equipment | Any standard a regulation names for structural ensembles, SCBA and PASS (areas SF, OV, HM) | [J13 Firefighter PPE and Protective Equipment](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/j13-firefighter-ppe-and-protective-equipment) |
| Respiratory Protection, Fit Testing and Breathing Air | The fit-test interval and method for SCBA users and the breathing air standard (areas SF, OV, HM) | [J14 Respiratory Protection, Fit Testing and Breathing Air](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/j14-respiratory-protection-fit-testing-and-breathing-air) |
| Fall Protection and Rope Access | The height or condition at which fall protection is required, and any relief for emergency services that train equivalent procedures (area HT) | [J16 Fall Protection and Rope Access](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/j16-fall-protection-and-rope-access) |
| Confined Space | The confined space definition and entry requirements, how atmospheric hazards must be assessed, and any firefighter rescue exemption (area CS) | [J17 Confined Space](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/j17-confined-space) |
| Excavation and Trench | The trench depth that triggers protective systems, the sloping and shoring rules, and atmospheric testing (area TC) | [J18 Excavation and Trench](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/j18-excavation-and-trench) |
| Workplace Violence | Whether the violence regulation applies to the department, and the risk assessment, prevention plan and statement it requires (area VI) | [J26 Workplace Violence](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/j26-workplace-violence) |
| Occupational Diving | Whether the occupational diving rules apply to public safety diving and what they require (WI-08) | [J29 Occupational Diving](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/j29-occupational-diving) |
| Emergency Vehicles, Drivers and Licensing | Whether a volunteer’s personal vehicle may claim any emergency exemption or courtesy light (AD-06) | [J30 Emergency Vehicles, Drivers and Licensing](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/j30-emergency-vehicles-drivers-and-licensing) |
| Workers’ Compensation and Firefighter Presumptions | The cancer, heart and psychological injury presumptions, and the exposure and service records a claim needs (areas OV, HM, PS) | [J32 Workers' Compensation and Firefighter Presumptions](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/j32-workers-compensation-and-firefighter-presumptions) |
| Wildland and Interface Fire | The provincial or territorial wildland agency, its interface arrangements with municipal departments, and the wildland qualification it requires (area WL) | [J35 Wildland and Interface Fire](https://thehumanfactor.ca/library/fire-service-safety/j35-wildland-and-interface-fire) |

## References

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Conklin, T. (2017). *Workplace fatalities: Failure to predict*. Pre-Accident Media.

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Hard, D. L., Marsh, S. M., Merinar, T. R., Bowyer, M. E., Miles, S. T., Loflin, M. E., & Moore, P. W. (2019). Summary of recommendations from the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health Fire Fighter Fatality Investigation and Prevention Program, 2006–2014. *Journal of Safety Research, 68*, 21–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2018.10.013

Hollnagel, E. (2014). *Safety-I and Safety-II: The past and future of safety management*. Ashgate.

International Association of Fire Fighters \[IAFF\], UL Solutions, & Fire Safety Research Institute \[FSRI\]. (2023). *Considerations for fire service response to residential battery energy storage system incidents*. <https://www.iaff.org/wp-content/uploads/IAFF_DOE_ResidentialESSConsiderations_Final.pdf>

International Organization for Standardization. (2018). *ISO 45001:2018, Occupational health and safety management systems: Requirements with guidance for use*. <https://www.iso.org/standard/63787.html>

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National Fire Protection Association. (2024). *NFPA 1550, Standard for emergency responder health and safety* (consolidates NFPA 1500, 1521 and 1561). <https://www.nfpa.org/codes-and-standards/nfpa-1550-standard-development/1550>

National Fire Protection Association. (2026). *NFPA 1400, Standard on fire service training* (consolidates NFPA 1402, 1403, 1404, 1407, 1408, 1410 and 1451). <https://www.nfpa.org/codes-and-standards/nfpa-1400-standard-development/1400>

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health \[NIOSH\]. (n.d.-b). *Fire Fighter Fatality Investigation and Prevention Program* \[Program website and investigation reports\]. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. <https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/firefighters/fffipp/index.html>

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health \[NIOSH\]. (2026b). *Health hazard evaluation report: Evaluation of diesel exhaust capture in fire stations* (HHE 2023-0099-3430). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. <https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/258737>

National Transportation Safety Board \[NTSB\]. (2020). *Safety risks to emergency responders from lithium-ion battery fires in electric vehicles* (Safety Report NTSB/SR-20/01). <https://www.ntsb.gov/safety/safety-studies/Documents/SR2001.pdf>

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